Prions= The Biggest of Bods :)

I'm sure you've all heard of mad cow disease? Well, mad cow disease was actually sparked by a protein called a prion. This led to fatal brain problems in the cattle. This was dangerous because it could affect any humans that ate contaminated meat. As we learned in this chapter prions are infectious proteins that cause diseases by inducing the abnormal folding of other protein molecules. So, more recently, a "mad deer" disease has come about. It targets deer, moose, and elk in the U.S. Fortunately, there are naturally occurring disinfectants found in lichen that may stop the dangerous prions in the wild.

Le Lichen (aka biggerbods than the prions)

This article talks about how lichens are natural born prion killers and how they can help us solve this dangerous disease.
These types of diseases are scary because they are produced by prions and we all know prions are super bigbods. They're super indestructible. You could be all like "aww yeahh I'm gonna boil all the bacteria outta you" and they're just like, "no". Dry heat, ionizing radiation, you name it... nothing will faze them. After all, one of the main reasons mad cow spread so fast is due to prions resistance to inactivation.
These wild animals spread the disease through their urine, feces, and saliva.
Christopher Johnson of the U.S. Geological Survey of the National Wildlife Health Center in Madison, Wisconsin, and his team found that three species of lichen have an enzyme that can break down the infamous prion!!!! Scientists concluded that when prions come into contact with lichens or soil near them, they inactivate. aka... prions are'nt so big anymore :)

Plasmids Will be the Death of Meee!!!

In this article researchers discovered that plasmids were the main reason that antibiotic resistance was spreading through bacteria. This is an important study because  more and more bacteria are resisting our antibiotics. UH OHHH! The problem is called multi-resistance. This is when an organism is able to survive even when exposed to multiple antibiotics. The antibiotic resistance can be transferred to the bacteria, even non-related bacteria, and can lead to human diseases. So how can this resistance be transferred to other bacteria, thus creating the bigger problem? Through conjugative plasmids, of course!
Conjugative plasmids help transfer genetic material between bacteria. A plasmid is a small DNA molecule that can separate from, and replicate independently of, the chromosomal DNA. These are those tiny circular things that we learned about in class.

This is picture shows the two different types of plasmid integrations into their host bacteria. The top shows non-integrating plasmids and the bottom shows episomes, where the plasmids integrate into the chromosome.

This research team studied IncP-1 plasmids. They mapped the origin of different IncP-1 plasmids and their ability to move and transfer informatoin between different species of bacteria. Peter Norberg, a researcher at IBUG stated, "Our results show that plasmids from the IncP-1 group have existed in, and adapted to, widely differing bacteria. They have also recombined, which means that a single plasmid can be regarded as a composite jigsaw puzzle of genes, each of which has adapted to different bacterial species" So the results showed that the plasmids can easily adapt. This tells us that despite the specie of 

the bacteria, these plasmids can move between and survive quickly in the different environments.

These plasmids are probably the #1 source in transferring the resistance genes between different bacteria. This is why this antibiotic resistance is becoming so widespread so fast.

In conclusion, this study showed that plasmids are the key source in spreading antibiotic resistance. It proved that IncP-1 plasmids move between different species of bacteria and interact directly with each other; thus, increasing the potential for the gene to be spread. 

Codominance vs Incomplete Dominance

I know in the beginning it says "in a minute" but, that is unfortunately a lie. This is quite the lengthy video. In this video Mr. McCammon, a teacher at Pisgah High School, teaches us the difference between codominance and incomplete dominance. This is something I was confused about. He teaches this by using punnett squares and defines and explains the functions of each term. He also briefly goes over probability and the outcomes, which is another thing I needed help with.
Briefly, codominance is when you interbreed a white and red flower and see a white and red flower. It could be striped or spotted but it is not pink. It just has patches that show both of the dominant features. On the other hand, incomplete dominance is when you would see a pink flower because it shows a blend of the two.
In sum, if you were having trouble grasping this concept I would recommend you watch this video, as it helped me.


P.S. I went to his "about" section on YouTube to see if he was legit and it said "STAR TREK: The Lost Generation" aka... yeah, he's pretty reliable :)

Why I am a BIGBOD!

This article states that I am a bigbod because... I am a girl. DAS RIGHTTTT!!!!!
This article talks about how women have stronger immune systems than men. This is because it is X-linked (as we have talked about in this chapter). Dr. Claude Libert from Ghent University in Belgium researched MicroRNA (short ribonucleic acid molecule found in eukaryotic cells that has very few nucleotides compared with other RNAs). Why microRNA? Perhaps because it is essential for all known forms of life.
"Statistics show that in humans, as with other mammals, females live longer than males and are more able to fight off shock episodes from sepsis (presence in tissues of harmful bacteria and their toxins, typically through infection of a wound), infection, or trauma", stated Libert. He claims this is because the X chromosome has 10% of all microRNA's known so far in the genome. This may be because many X chromosome- located strands of microRNA play important roles in cancer and immunity.
Dr. Libert's research states that there are biological mechanisms present on the X chromosome that play major roles on individuals' genes. Aka imprinting; and thus giving immunological advantages to females :) DAS WASSUPPPPPPP.

Le "X chromosome"

Libert's hypothesis states that he believes the immunological advantage that is present, is due to the silencing of X-linked genes by the microRNAs. "Gene silencing and inactivation skewing are known mechanisms which affect X-linked genes and may influence X-linked microRNA's in the same way"
In sum, I am a bigbod because I obvs have two X chromosomes. On the other hand, males have one X chromosome. Y chromosomes have fewer genes so if the genes involved in immunity are silenced maternally, that guy is screwed because he wouldn't have any back-up genetic information. 
Now go cry cause I'm a girl and a bigbod, and you're not!

Pedigrees Are Actually Useful?

This article talks about pedigrees! Apparently, researchers have found evidence to connect bipolar disorder to chromosome 6 and 17. They found this evidence through a pedigree series. 
First, bipolar disorder is a condition in which people go back and forth between periods of a very good or irritable mood and depression.
Prior to the actual study, researchers had reported results of a linkage analysis of bipolar disorder in what started as a set of twenty pedigrees newly discovered by the synergy of three various sites. They now report the results. They had a genome-wide linkage analysis in an independent sample of thirty-four pedigrees that separated, or sought out bipolar disorder.
Here's how: Researchers used families that were known to have a bipolar I or II disorder; individuals affected with this disorder were the first subjects in a study for the presence of bipolar I disorder, bipolar II disorder, or returning and constant major depression in a few other family members. "A total of 440 markers at an average spacing of 8 cM were genotyped in 229 family members using fluorescent methods" say researchers when 
asked about their methods.

This is a picture of chromosome 6. You can see that certain parts of this chromosome have stripes representing the different gene locations. These gene locations have names like the 6q25 region- referenced below.

In conclusion, first nonparametric analyses of chromosomes 6 and 17 proved for a simple replication of linkage to these chromosomes that had been pointed at before and speculated in previous studies. Using multipoint parametric methods, other analyses, showed further evidence to support the 6q25 region ( a region where specific genes are encoded on chromosome 6) with a heterogeneity logarithm of odds score of 3.28. From the  two-point parametric analyses we also found further evidence that again showed a simple replication of the researchers previous findings of linkage to the 23 cM region of chromosome 22q13, thus proving their theory right, further. Their results pretty much stated that there is replication of certain proven linkage peaks, like that of 6q25 and 17p12 (chromosomes 6 and 17). Other peaks from previous studies had to have not been replicated or were only modestly replicated in these analyses.

Hooray for Interactiveness!

So I just found this website that provides you with an interactive animation on mitosis, meiosis, and the cell cycle.
Check This Out!
I've linked you to the "Mitosis" page but if you look on the sidebar, you can also access "Meiosis" and "The Cell Cycle". How coolio! Aren't you glad we're friends?
This website allows you to go through all of the different phases of the cell cycle using mitosis or meiosis. You can also quiz yourself at the end to see if you're learning!
I found this website very helpful and if you are having trouble understanding these concepts, it will definitely help you in an interactive way. Especially if you're a visual/hands-on learner!

Well, the title says it all. This is quite the entertaining video. It provides a detailed explanation on the difference between mitosis and meiosis. It also gives the definitions and functions of many key terms that we have learned in this chapter. The video goes over each phase of meiosis and mitosis and also provides diagrams for each.

My Toe, Sis!

^OMG! There I go again. Making people die of laughter. If I were a potato, I'd be a funny potato. (Cred to : Thomas)

Okay, so this article gives brief overviews of mitosis, meiosis, and cell division and DNA replication as a whole. It covers the way science works and especially how the scientific method applies to biology. Then, it talks about the actual structure of the cell, building a map of the cell – knowing what processes happen where in the cell, e.g., the production of energy-rich ATP molecules in the mitochondria.

It also takes a closer look at the way DNA codes get transcribed into RNA in the nucleus (stuff we've already learned, obvi) and the RNA code translation process into protein structure in the rough endoplasmatic reticulum. Alas, it also talks about several different approaches that cells may take to communicate with each other and with the environment, thus modifying cell function.

In regards to the ways cells divide, it goes over  how cell-division, starting with a fertilized cell, builds an embryo, how genetic code (genotype) influence the observable and measurable traits (phenotype) and, finally, how these processes affect the genetic composition of the populations of organisms of the same species – the process of evolution.

This diagram shows both meiosis and mitosis. When next to each other, you can easily compare the two. They are briefly explained below.

One way mitosis is used, is for building! The process of DNA replication, as we all know, is the way all of the DNA code of the mother cell duplicates and one copy goes into each daughter cell (aka most important aspect of cell division). Other cell organelles also divide and split into two daughter cells (someone totally asked Dwebs this in class!!!!). Once the process of DNA replication is over, the new portion of the cell membrane gets built transecting the cell and dividing all the genetic material into two cellular compartments, leading the cell to split into two cells.

Meiosis is a special case of cell division. Mitosis results in the division of all types of cells in the body. Meiosis, however,  results in the formation of sex cells (the gametes: eggs and sperm). Mitosis is a one-step process: one cell divides into two. Meiosis is a two-step process: one cell divides into two, then each daughter immediately divides again into two, resulting in four grand-daughter cells. Therefore, mitosis results in two diploid cells (functional) and meiosis results in four various haploid cells (not fully functional).

Overall this is a very helpful article in briefing mitosis and meiosis :)